Population genetics is the study of genetic variation in populations, and how the variation changes from generation to generation. The most fundamental unit of genetic change is the allele. Alleles are different versions of the same gene.
One of the key questions in population genetics is: if you know how many of each allele is in a population in one generation, how will their percentages change in the next generation? An answer of "no change" is called the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. This theorem is an important comparison tool for finding out which genes in a genome are doing something more interesting than "neutral."
Learn more in the articles below:
What is an Allele?
The Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Theorem
And feel free to suggest more topics here, if you have other basic questions about population genetics. :)
10 June 2011
09 June 2011
How to make a tasty pasta sauce out of a can of clam chowder
Canned clam chowder makes an excellent base for a seafood-style pasta sauce. Just add pasta, veggies, and various herbs and spices. Here's one of my favorite versions. It takes 15-20 minutes to put together - basically the length of time to fully cook the pasta.
* two cups pasta - penne, rotini, macaroni, or other short pieces (I prefer penne)
* one can clam chowder (I prefer Campbell's Chunky)
* 2-3 cups frozen vegetables, such as peas, corn, broccoli, etc.
* minced dried onion bits
* garlic powder
* paprika
* dash cayenne
* black pepper
* lots of basil
Set the pasta to boil in a large pot with plenty of water. Add salt to the water if you like. Remember to stir occasionally as you work on the sauce.
Begin the sauce by heating the clam chowder in a saucepan. If the can's instructions say to stir in a can of water, do so. Sprinkle in the onions, garlic powder, paprika, cayenne pepper, and black pepper. I add enough of each to lightly cover the surface of the chowder (less for cayenne if you don't want too much spicy heat). The chowder should become a pale orange color once the spices are all stirred in together.
When the chowder begins to boil, add the frozen vegetables. Stir everything together. Cover and turn the heat to low.
When the pasta is done, drain it in a colander. Uncover the chowder sauce, sprinkle in the basil, then add the pasta. (The basil is what really makes this dish.) Turn off the heat and stir everything together. Enjoy!
I've found that frozen peas require very little cooking. Instead of adding it to the clam chowder while it's heating, try putting it in the bottom of the colander before pouring the pasta water over it. This will thaw them out nicely while letting them retain their freshlike crispness.
 |   |
* two cups pasta - penne, rotini, macaroni, or other short pieces (I prefer penne)
* one can clam chowder (I prefer Campbell's Chunky)
* 2-3 cups frozen vegetables, such as peas, corn, broccoli, etc.
* minced dried onion bits
* garlic powder
* paprika
* dash cayenne
* black pepper
* lots of basil
Set the pasta to boil in a large pot with plenty of water. Add salt to the water if you like. Remember to stir occasionally as you work on the sauce.
Begin the sauce by heating the clam chowder in a saucepan. If the can's instructions say to stir in a can of water, do so. Sprinkle in the onions, garlic powder, paprika, cayenne pepper, and black pepper. I add enough of each to lightly cover the surface of the chowder (less for cayenne if you don't want too much spicy heat). The chowder should become a pale orange color once the spices are all stirred in together.
 |  |
When the chowder begins to boil, add the frozen vegetables. Stir everything together. Cover and turn the heat to low.
When the pasta is done, drain it in a colander. Uncover the chowder sauce, sprinkle in the basil, then add the pasta. (The basil is what really makes this dish.) Turn off the heat and stir everything together. Enjoy!
I've found that frozen peas require very little cooking. Instead of adding it to the clam chowder while it's heating, try putting it in the bottom of the colander before pouring the pasta water over it. This will thaw them out nicely while letting them retain their freshlike crispness.
08 June 2011
Is a seashell an abiotic feature?
Originally landed on: Abiotic Factors of an Open Ocean Ecosystem
The definition of "abiotic" is "non-biological." A seashell is made by a living organism, therefore it is biotic. In the sea, shells come from creatures like clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, whelks, conchs, periwinkles, and other sea snails.
While seashells are biotic, they can significantly influence the abiotic factors of their surroundings, especially the pH of water. Seashells are made of calcium carbonate, which acts as a buffer by dissolving in acidic conditions and causing pH to go up, becoming more basic.
In general, all precipitated calcium carbonate in the sea has a biotic origin. Corals use it to build massive reefs. Many types of creatures of all sizes use it to make protective shells, including microplankton. Old shells become white calcium-carbonate sand, and eventually over geologic timeframes, limestone.
In modern times, an increase in global carbon dioxide has begun to make the oceans more acidic, which makes it much harder for marine organisms to precipitate calcium carbonate for their shells.
The definition of "abiotic" is "non-biological." A seashell is made by a living organism, therefore it is biotic. In the sea, shells come from creatures like clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, whelks, conchs, periwinkles, and other sea snails.
While seashells are biotic, they can significantly influence the abiotic factors of their surroundings, especially the pH of water. Seashells are made of calcium carbonate, which acts as a buffer by dissolving in acidic conditions and causing pH to go up, becoming more basic.
In general, all precipitated calcium carbonate in the sea has a biotic origin. Corals use it to build massive reefs. Many types of creatures of all sizes use it to make protective shells, including microplankton. Old shells become white calcium-carbonate sand, and eventually over geologic timeframes, limestone.
In modern times, an increase in global carbon dioxide has begun to make the oceans more acidic, which makes it much harder for marine organisms to precipitate calcium carbonate for their shells.
07 June 2011
How to make tomato soup more interesting than just heating it up straight from the can
 |   |
I've found that plain canned tomato soup has a surprising amount of sugar. Campbell's for example contains high fructose corn syrup (!). If you're prone to anaphylactic shock, eating nothing but this soup can cause it. It's why I first started adding so many vegetables, especially starchy vegetables - to compensate that effect.
Rather than a formal recipe, below are some ideas for vegetables and meats that add well to plain tomato soup - and go well with each other. The measurements work for a gallon of soup.
Things You'll Need
* two family-sized cans of condensed tomato soup, such as Campbell's
* three cans water
The rest of the ingredients are optional. Mix and match whichever you have on hand, or whichever you feel like eating.
* half a head of cabbage, finely shredded
* three carrots, chopped
* two-three red potatoes, coarsely diced
* two cups corn. I use frozen.
* two cups cooked rice. Carolina long-grain works best but any will do. This is a great way to use up leftover rice from other meals.
* three hot dogs, sliced into small disc-shaped pieces
* one cup small-medium shrimp, peeled and deveined
* black pepper
In the soup pot, mix the tomato soup with water. Bring it to a slow boil. Be careful not to let it boil over - tomato soup expands a lot when heated, moreso than broths.
Add the rice. When the soup comes back to a boil, add the carrots. Then the potatoes. Note the time after putting in the potatoes. Stir after each vegetable.
When the soup comes back to a boil after the potatoes, add the corn. Then the cabbage. When 15 minutes have passed since putting in the potatoes, add the shrimp. Stir.
When the shrimp are pink, add the hot dogs and black pepper. Let it come to a boil one more time, then turn off the heat. Stir and serve with crackers or bread.
06 June 2011
Bush Whacker - A Flash RPG Game on Facebook
Bush Whacker, by DJArts, is one of very few games on Facebook where the developers care about the game and respect their players more than just for the money in their wallets. Everything they do reflects how much they love what they do. Check out my full review here, then if you're on Facebook go check out the game. :)
05 June 2011
The Cul-de-sac Formation On a Four-lane Highway (Two Lanes Going Each Way)
 | In the cul-de-sac formation, you have two cars in two lanes. The one on the left is going only slightly faster than the one on the right. There's a huge line of cars behind the one on the left. There are no cars behind the one on the right. |
 | It's tempting to move into the empty right lane. Approaching the cul-de-sac formation from behind, it looks like you can drive faster that way and pass the big line of cars on the left. Maybe you think you can go up to the front, then cut back into the left lane and bypass everyone else. Suppose you succumb to the temptation and move into the right lane. For a short while you are indeed moving faster than everyone else. |
 | But then you end up behind the slow car at the front of the cul-de-sac. The cars on the left are going slower than you were, but faster than the car you are now behind - and (very slowly) they are passing you. Worse, few people want to let you back into the left lane. They're just as annoyed about the slow left passing as you are, and nobody likes a line-cutter. You're stuck there until the back of the line has passed - which might be farther back than if you'd stayed where you were. |
Don't go into the right lane. Yes, it's slow going until the car at the front left has finished passing - at which point it will either move to the right lane and allow everyone else to pass, or it will eventually pull far enough ahead that everyone else can pass on the right. Until then, just be patient and stay where you are.
Cul-de-sacs also form on highways with more than two lanes each way. It's possible for surrounding lanes to be so full of traffic that all lane-changing in and out is blocked. But the principle is the same - look far enough ahead at the cars in front of you and check how fast they're going before moving into what looks like an empty stretch of lane.
04 June 2011
What is an Ecosystem?
An ecological community consists of all the species at a particular place in a particular timeframe, and all their interactions with each other. An ecosystem is an ecology community, plus all the physical and chemical (abiotic) factors of the surrounding environment.
Learn what each part of the ecosystem definition means in this overview.
Learn what each part of the ecosystem definition means in this overview.
03 June 2011
How to Keep Cantaloupe for One
Love cantaloupe, but can't eat such a large fruit all at once by yourself? Here's a handy way to make it last longer in the fridge.
1. Cut the cantaloupe in half, then each half also in half, so that you have quarters.
2. Scrape out the seeds and pulpy bits at the center of each quarter, using a metal spoon. It's the pulpy bits that go bad first in a cantaloupe, so once you remove them, the rest will keep a lot longer.
3. Cut up only the part you plan to eat or use. You want to minimize the amount of surface area exposed to air in the rest of it. If you can only eat a quarter or an eighth (half a quarter), only cut up that much at a time.
4. Put the quarters you plan to store into a large resealable plastic bag. Heavy duty freezer bags work well. Squeeze out as much air from the bag as you can before sealing and placing into the refrigerator. It should keep for at least a week.
1. Cut the cantaloupe in half, then each half also in half, so that you have quarters.
2. Scrape out the seeds and pulpy bits at the center of each quarter, using a metal spoon. It's the pulpy bits that go bad first in a cantaloupe, so once you remove them, the rest will keep a lot longer.
3. Cut up only the part you plan to eat or use. You want to minimize the amount of surface area exposed to air in the rest of it. If you can only eat a quarter or an eighth (half a quarter), only cut up that much at a time.
4. Put the quarters you plan to store into a large resealable plastic bag. Heavy duty freezer bags work well. Squeeze out as much air from the bag as you can before sealing and placing into the refrigerator. It should keep for at least a week.
02 June 2011
Strategy Guides to Popular Facebook MMORTS Games
Massively multiplayer online real-time strategy (MMORTS) games have begun following in the footsteps of MMORPGs, and are faring quite well on Facebook so far. Popular examples include Kingdoms of Camelot and Dragons of Atlantis from Kabam games, and Backyard Monsters and the new Battle Pirates from Casual Collective.
Some strategy guides to get you started in the first three of these:
Guide to Kingdoms of Camelot for Beginner Players (screenshots are a bit out of date, but most of the info is still good)
Guide to Dragons of Atlantis for Beginner Players
Beginners Guide to Backyard Monsters
Backyard Monsters: Outposts Starter Guide
Kingdoms of Camelot was the earliest put out by Kabam, while Dragons of Atlantis is the latest. In between there was one called Glory of Rome, which has game elements intermediate to the other two that didn't really mix all that well, and thus Glory of Rome didn't become as popular. As a clone, it improved on a few things where KoC was lacking, and introduced new things that weren't quite there yet - that the next clone (Dragons of Atlantis) fixed.
Meanwhile, Backyard Monsters by Casual Collective (now Kixeye) has many similarities to the Kabam games, but has many anti-bullying aspects built into the game design. For example, there are level limits on whom you can attack, limits to how many attacks in a row you can carry out, how much damage you can inflict, etc.
The newest Kixeye game, Battle Pirates, has a base-building design closer to the Kabam games than BYM in many ways, but retaining the anti-bullying elements. It also introduces something that none of the others have: real-time battles with actual ships that you can actually control in micro.
In fact, with fleets functioning much like avatars in other Facebook games, combined with the sector chat, a whole new level of setting immersion and interaction is possible that I haven't seen since Farm Town.
I haven't written a strategy guide for it yet because my rule of thumb is that I don't know what I'm talking about unless I've played the game for at least a month. But stay tuned, one is coming soon. :)
And in any case, it'll be interesting to watch how things develop for Facebook mmorts games from here.
Some strategy guides to get you started in the first three of these:
Guide to Kingdoms of Camelot for Beginner Players (screenshots are a bit out of date, but most of the info is still good)
Guide to Dragons of Atlantis for Beginner Players
Beginners Guide to Backyard Monsters
Backyard Monsters: Outposts Starter Guide
Kingdoms of Camelot was the earliest put out by Kabam, while Dragons of Atlantis is the latest. In between there was one called Glory of Rome, which has game elements intermediate to the other two that didn't really mix all that well, and thus Glory of Rome didn't become as popular. As a clone, it improved on a few things where KoC was lacking, and introduced new things that weren't quite there yet - that the next clone (Dragons of Atlantis) fixed.
Meanwhile, Backyard Monsters by Casual Collective (now Kixeye) has many similarities to the Kabam games, but has many anti-bullying aspects built into the game design. For example, there are level limits on whom you can attack, limits to how many attacks in a row you can carry out, how much damage you can inflict, etc.
The newest Kixeye game, Battle Pirates, has a base-building design closer to the Kabam games than BYM in many ways, but retaining the anti-bullying elements. It also introduces something that none of the others have: real-time battles with actual ships that you can actually control in micro.
In fact, with fleets functioning much like avatars in other Facebook games, combined with the sector chat, a whole new level of setting immersion and interaction is possible that I haven't seen since Farm Town.
I haven't written a strategy guide for it yet because my rule of thumb is that I don't know what I'm talking about unless I've played the game for at least a month. But stay tuned, one is coming soon. :)
And in any case, it'll be interesting to watch how things develop for Facebook mmorts games from here.
01 June 2011
How to Get Into a Hot Car in The Summertime
Ever open your car door on a hot summer day and get blasted by a wave of oven-like heat? And then you have to stand there waiting for it to cool down so you can get in? Here's a way to get going a little faster.
Open All Doors
When you get to your car, don't go to the driver's side first. Start by opening the front passenger door. If it's an especially hot, sunny day, you can use the door as a shield between you and any blasts of heat that roll out when you open it.
If you have a rear passenger door, open that one too. If the back of your car is a hatch or gate or otherwise opens into the main compartment of the car, open that too. Keep going around opening all the doors until you get to the driver's door, which you open last.
Roll Down All Windows
Now roll down all the windows, starting with the driver's side door. Go back around opening windows until you're at the front passenger door again.
If your car has automatic windows, you might have to reach in and put your key into the ignition first.
Close All Doors
By now, most of the heat will have wafted out of the car - especially if there's any breeze. Close all the doors, starting with the front passenger and working your way back around to the driver's side. If your windows are manual crank, you'll probably want to close any that you can't reach from the driver's seat if there's any chance of rain.
Once you're back to the driver's side, get in before you close it. The inside of the car should be about the same temperature as the outside - much better than before you started. Now your AC (if you use AC) won't have to work as hard. :)
Other Heat Protection
A good, inexpensive way to keep the interior temperature down is car sunglasses, put in front of the windshield. These reflect sunlight away from the car at the place where most of the heat is generated (that is, through the windshield). Car dealerships often sell them specially fitted to their brands, while generic ones are available in department stores for less.
Fuzzy steering wheel covers are a good way to protect your hands from high heat (and also extreme cold in the winter). They make it much less painful to touch the steering wheel when you first get in.
Open All Doors
When you get to your car, don't go to the driver's side first. Start by opening the front passenger door. If it's an especially hot, sunny day, you can use the door as a shield between you and any blasts of heat that roll out when you open it.
If you have a rear passenger door, open that one too. If the back of your car is a hatch or gate or otherwise opens into the main compartment of the car, open that too. Keep going around opening all the doors until you get to the driver's door, which you open last.
Roll Down All Windows
Now roll down all the windows, starting with the driver's side door. Go back around opening windows until you're at the front passenger door again.
If your car has automatic windows, you might have to reach in and put your key into the ignition first.
Close All Doors
By now, most of the heat will have wafted out of the car - especially if there's any breeze. Close all the doors, starting with the front passenger and working your way back around to the driver's side. If your windows are manual crank, you'll probably want to close any that you can't reach from the driver's seat if there's any chance of rain.
Once you're back to the driver's side, get in before you close it. The inside of the car should be about the same temperature as the outside - much better than before you started. Now your AC (if you use AC) won't have to work as hard. :)
Other Heat Protection
A good, inexpensive way to keep the interior temperature down is car sunglasses, put in front of the windshield. These reflect sunlight away from the car at the place where most of the heat is generated (that is, through the windshield). Car dealerships often sell them specially fitted to their brands, while generic ones are available in department stores for less.
Fuzzy steering wheel covers are a good way to protect your hands from high heat (and also extreme cold in the winter). They make it much less painful to touch the steering wheel when you first get in.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
